Parts of speech

Parts of speech

A term in traditional grammar for the nine categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences:

•        Noun

•        Pronoun

•        Adjective

•        Verb

•        Adverb

•        Preposition

•        Conjunction

•        Interjection

•        Article

1. Noun: noun means (name) is use for person place, things.

Or

NOUN: A noun is a word which names living or non-living objects.

e.g.

Janat khan – person  

 Waziristan – place  

 Pen – thing

Nouns are divided in to two parts.

•        Concrete noun

•        Abstract noun

Concrete noun: A concrete noun is a word for something can be experienced by any of the five senses.it can be seen, heard, visible, smelt or taste.

e.g.

Ice, fire, car and etc….

Concrete nouns are divided into five parts.

•        Proper noun

•        Common noun

•        Collective noun

•        Material noun

•        Combined noun

Proper noun: proper noun used for an individual person or place spelled with initial capital letter.

e.g.

NOORZAD

Common noun: Common nouns are general words (name) for any people place or things.

e.g.:

Country, School, Table and etc…..

Collective noun: A count noun that denote a group individual.

Or

Collective noun: is the name of a special class of people thing or animals.

e.g.:

Nation

Material noun: A material noun a word for a material, substance or an ingredient that other things are made from.

e.g.

Wood, iron, cotton etc…

Combined noun: is a noun which is formed by the combination of two nouns or more than two nouns.

e.g.

Basketball, football etc…..

Abstract noun: are words for thing that can’t be experienced by any of the five senses; they can’t be seen hard

Or

Abstract noun is a noun that you cannot senses, it is the name we give to emotion, ideal or idea they have no physical existence.

e.g.

Memory, love, bravery ,justice etc….

Noun genders of English language indicate the sex of nouns.

There are four types of gender in English language.

•        Masculine gender

•        Feminine gender

•        Common gender

•        Neuter gender

Masculine gender noun are words for men boys brothers ….etc and male animals.

Feminine gender nouns are words for women girls sisters …etc. and for females animals.

Common gender noun is used for both male and females.

Neuter gender noun are word for thing are not alive.

e.g.

Wood stone etc..

Singular and plural nouns rules

•        Plurals ending at (s)

•        Plurals ending (ies)

•        Plurals ending (es)

•        Plurals ending (ves)

•        Irregular plurals

1. To make a singular noun to plural nouns add (s).

e.g.

One pen → two pens

One book → four books

One boy →   two boys

2. The words ending in consonant before (y). Change (y) to (i) and add (es).

e.g.

one fly  → two flies

a family → families

a city → cities

3.  The words ending in ch,sh,ss,s,x.we add in plurals of these nouns (es).

One bus → four buses

A glass → two glasses

One box → five boxes

Note : And some other few singular noun ending in (O) we add in plurals of these few nouns (es).

e.g.

one mango →two mangoes

a tomato → four tomatoes

One potato → two potatoes

4. Noun ending in (F) or(Fe) change (F) or (Fe) change to (V) and add (es).

e.g.

Wife → wives

Knife → knives

Leaf → leaves

5. Irregular plurals: are those which do not have any special rule.

e.g.

One man  → two men

A child → four children

A foot → two feet

2. Pronoun:

Pronoun is word that’s takes the place of a noun or anther pronoun in the sentence or phrase.

Note: The word “pronoun” comes from the Latin word “pronomen” which breaks down onto “pro” and “nomen”. They mean “in place of” and “name.”

e.g.

Tabeeb is my brother.

He is my brother.

Pronouns are dived into nine parts:

•        Personal pronoun

•        Possessive pronoun

•        Demonstrative pronoun

•        Relative pronoun

•        Reflexive pronoun

•        Emphasizing pronoun

•        Interrogative pronoun

•        Distributive pronoun

•        Indefinite pronoun

1. Personal pronoun: are used instead of people, places and things in the sentence or phrase.

Personal pronouns are divided into two parts.

•        Subject pronoun

•        Object pronoun

Subject pronoun: is a pronoun that’s takes the place of a noun as the subject of sentence.

Subject pronoun are (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)

Subject is the doer of an action.

e.g.

She watered the plants.

He is my brother.

Object pronoun: are pronouns that are used only for object in the sentence.

Object pronouns are (me, you, him, her, it, us, them)

Object is the receiver of an action.

Some pronoun can be used as the subject or object of a sentence or phrase.

They are (you) and (it)

2.Possessive pronouns: are words those are  takes the places of a nouns and show possession or ownership.

The possessive pronoun are :( mine, your, his, hers, its, ours, theirs)

e.g.

They are not friend of mine.

Is the pen yours?

3.Demonstrative pronoun: are words those are  takes the places of a nouns and point out some person, place or thing.

Demonstrative pronoun are (this ,that these ,those, such, the former, the later and etc.

This is my book.

These are my books.

That is my case.

Those are my cases.

(This) and (these) are used to point out a near aim. (That) and (those) are used to point out something far.

4. Relative pronoun: are words those take the place of nouns and join two sentences.

Relative pronoun are (who, whom, whatsoever, whomever,, whosoever, whatever, whoever, whose, of which, what, that, which)

e.g.

That is the book which I bought yesterday.

This is the book that everyone is talking about.

5. Reflexive pronoun: are used when the subject of the sentence is the same as the object of the verb of that sentence. The work reflects from subject to object and from object to subject.

Reflexive pronoun are (myself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,ourselves,yourselves,themselves)

He bought himself a new car for his new job.

If you don’t know what is wrong with yourself, then ask a doctor.

I hurt myself.

6. Emphasizing pronoun: are words those takes the place of nouns emphasize on performing of an action.

Emphasizing pronoun are (myself,yourself,himself,herself,,itself,ourselves,yourselves,themselves)

I myself saw maiwand in the Pakistan.

When the emphasizing pronouns are used with preposition [by] mean by one own self.

e.g

He did the home work by himself.

7. Interrogative pronoun: are pronouns those are used in order to ask a question.

Interrogative pronoun are (who, whom, whose, what, which)

e.g.

Whose is this pen?

Who is your teacher?

8. Distributive pronoun: are words those take the place of nouns and indicate each person of a number or group.

Distributive pronouns are (either, each, any, neither)

e.g.

9. Indefinite pronoun: are words those takes the place of nouns and denote some unknown person or thing.

Indefinite pronoun are (every, every one, everybody, no body, someone, anyone, some thing, all, few, other, others…..etc.)

e.g.

Anyone can do this if he tries.

Everybody is smart in his own way.

I saw no body in the home.

3. Adjective: Adjectives are words which tell us something about nouns, that is about a person, an animal, a thing or a place. They usually come before the nouns they describe. But sometimes they come after the nouns.

OR

 An adjective is a part of speech that is used to describe a noun.

Adjective are dived into eight parts:

•        Adjective of quality

•        Proper adjective

•        Adjective of quantity

•        Demonstrative adjective

•        Possessive adjective

•        Interrogative adjective

•        Distributive adjective

•        Numeral adjective

1. Adjective of quality: Adjective of Quality, it tells us about the color, shape, size or condition of a noun.

Or

Adjective of quality show the kind of a person, place or thing.

They are (tall, nice, clever)

e.g.

Wazir is tall boy.

a white dog , the blue sky , a round table , a big house

2. Proper adjective: is an adjective that is formed from a proper noun. A proper adjective is always begins with a capital letter.

e.g.

Proper noun           proper adjective

Islam                         Islamic

Afghanistan           Afghan

Pakistan                 Pakistani

Africa                     African

He is an African man.

Adjective of Quantity: show how much of a thing is meat.

They are (any, little, much, enough, some, no…etc.)

e.g.

The food is enough for everyone.

4. Demonstrative adjective: Demonstrative adjectives are special adjectives or determiners used to identify or express the relative position of a noun in time or space. A demonstrative adjective comes before all other adjectives in the noun phrase

Demonstrative adjective are (this, that, these, those, such, the same. The other)

e.g.

This book is good.

These tools are delicate.

5. Possessive adjective: are used before noun and show possession or ownership. And possessive adjectives have no singular or plural. They are used with both singular and plural noun.

Possessive adjective are (my, your, his, her, its ,our ,their)

e.g.

I like my sandwich.

They like their food.

The cat likes its food.

6. Interrogative adjective: are placed before noun and ask a question.

Or

An interrogative adjective is a word which both modifies a noun and indicates a question.

Interrogative adjective are (what, which, whose)

e.g.

Whose car is this?

Which way are you going?

What color is this book?

7. Distributive adjective: are those which are used before nouns and indicate each person of a number or group.

They are (each, every, either, neither)

e.g.

Neither answer is correct.

I take either shirt, they are both good.

Every child needs love.

8. Numeral adjective:

Numeral adjectives are of three kinds:

•        Definite Numeral adjectives

•        indefinite numeral adjectives

•        distributive numeral adjectives

1. Definite numeral adjective: Both cardinal (e.g. one, two, three, four etc.) and ordinal numbers (e.g. first, second, third, fourth etc.) belong to this category.

Or

Definite adjective are those which show exact number.

e.g.

I have bought six eggs.

She has the third position in the class.

Who was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize for Physics?

2. Indefinite numeral adjective: They indicate an indefinite number. Examples are: some, many, few, all, more,, no, several etc.

Or

Indefinite numeral adjective show inexact number

e.g.

Many languages are spoken in Afghanistan.

Several week weeks passed before she got a reply to her letter.

3. Distribute numeral adjective: Distributive numeral adjectives are considered as the same as distributive adjectives. Examples are: each, every, either and neither

e.g.

Each hand has five fingers.

Every child needs love.

Either method is correct.

Neither method is wrong.

Comparative adjective: are used when we compare two persons, place or things.

Rules of comparative adjective with (er)

• One-syllable adjective take (er) in comparative adjective.

e.g.

Tall → taller

Old → older

Short → shorter

Ahmad is taller than Hameed.

• Two-syllable adjective ending in (y).(y) change (i) and add (er).

e.g.

Happy → happier

Easy → easier

• When a one-syllable adjective ends with a vowel and one consonant, double the consonant before er. For adjective ending in (e ) add only (r).

e.g.

Fat → fatter

Big → bigger

Thin → thinner 

Nice → nicer

• Irregular comparative adjective: are those which do not have any special rule.

Good → better

Bad → worse

Little → less

Much → more

Superlatives adjective:

• Adjectives with one-syllable add only (est):

Great → greatest

Old —> oldest

• Adjectives with two-syllables in superlative use with (most):

Careful → most careful

 Patient → most patient

But two-syllable adjectives ending in (er, y, oxv) only add (est) and (y) change to (i):

Clever → cleverest;

 Happy → happiest
• Adjectives with three-syllables or more use (most):

Comfortable → most comfortable

Dangerous → most dangerous

●irregular superlative adjective:

Bad → worst

Good → best

Little → least

4. Verb: A verb is a word that expresses action or a state.

e.g.

Samander comes to the shop every day. (Action)

We are boys. (State)

Verbs are dived into two parts.

•        Ordinary verb

•        Auxiliary verb

1. Ordinary verbs: shows the complete meaning and can stand alone.

Ordinary are (come, eat, see, go, walk…etc.)

Ordinary verb are dived into two parts:

•        Intransitive verbs

•        Transitive verbs

Intransitive verbs: In Latin, intrans means (not across). Therefore, intransitive verbs do not take direct objects because there is no action to transfer.

e.g.

 We walked carefully.

Transitive verbs: In Latin, Trans means (across). Therefore, the subject transfers the action to the object. Most verbs in English are transitive.

e.g.

I took my car to the shop.

He broke the table.

Transitive verbs are divided into two parts:

There are two voices in English. Active and Passive

•        Active verb: The active verb tell us what the subject does.

Or

Active verb: in which the doer of an action is the subject of the sentences.

e.g.

The secretary wrote a letter.

Ahmad fixed the lorry.

•        Passive verb: In which the receiver of an action is the subject of the sentences.

Or

The passive verbs tell us what is done to the subject.

e.g.

The letter was written by the secretary.

The lorry was fixed by Ahmad.

2. Auxiliary verb: Auxiliary verbs, which are sometimes called helping verbs, act as helpers to other verbs. They appear in front of action verbs and linking verbs.

The Auxiliary verb are (can , could , will , shall ,would , should , may , might , out to must ,need , dare , used to, am, is , are , was , were ,have ,has , had , do , does , did.)

These above 24 auxiliaries are divided into three parts:

•        Principal auxiliary verbs

•        Modal auxiliary verbs

•        Semi modal auxiliary verb

1. Principal auxiliaries verbs: To be verbs, To do verbs and To have verbs are the principal auxiliaries. And the principle auxiliaries can be used as ordinary verbs too.

•        To be verbs: show state in the sentences and help the main verbs.

         To be verbs are (Am, is, are, was, were, been)

        Present conjunction:

         I → am

         He, she, it→ is

        They, we, you→ are

        Past conjugation:

       I, He, She, It → was

       They, we, you → were

         e.g.

         I am a student.

        She is a doctor.

        We are boys.

        He was a good man.

•        To do verbs: are used to show performance of an action and help the main verbs.

     They are (Do, Does, Did)

     Present conjunction:

     I, We, You, They → Do

     He, She, It → Does

    Past conjugation:

    I, You, He, She, It, We, They → Did

e.g.

He does the homework.

We do the homework.

He did the homework.

•        To have verbs: show possession or ownership in the sentences and help the main verbs.

To have verbs are (have, has, had)

He, She, It → Has

I, We, They, You → Have

I, He, She, It, We, They, You → Had

e.g.

I have a pen.

He has a pen.

We had a pen.

2. Modal auxiliaries verbs: Modal Auxiliary VERBS are one type of auxiliary verb. They include can, could, may, might, should, had better, must, will, would, ought to, shall, will.

Conveying ability: The modal can conveys ability now (in the present), and could conveys ability before (in the past). These words deliver the meaning “able to.” For the future, use will be able to.

e.g.

We can work late tonight (Present)

I could work late last night, too. (Past)

I will not be able to work late next Monday. (Future)

Conveying possibility: may shows a present possibility and might is used in the past from.

I may leave here tomorrow.

She might have gone.

And may is also use for admission and permission when the (may) placed at the beginning of sentence.

e.g.

May I use your mobile?

May I come in?

Conveying necessity: The modals must and have to convey a need to do something. Both must and have to are followed by the simple form of the main verb. In the present tense, have to changes form to agree with its subject.

e.g.

We must go to the shop to get milks.

We must study today.

She has to leave when I leave.

We had to take a test yesterday.

Shall, Will: show an action which will take place in the future. And should and would are used in the past from of shall and will.

I will call him tomorrow.

I shall meet you next month.

I thought I should never see you again.

I would go to office if I did not have a problem at home

You should have gone to class yesterday.

Ought to: The modals ought to express the idea that doing the action of the

Main verb is advisable or is a good idea.

e.g.

you ought to help them.

3. Semi modal auxiliaries: in English language there three semi modal auxiliaries:

They are (Use to, dare, need)

1. Used to: when use to use by the simple from of the verb. It means (before) or (ago). And when (used to) is used with to be verb, Followed by the (ing) from. Means (habit)

He used to Gymnastic.

I am used hitchhiking.

2. Dare: show audacity or courage.it can be used for auxiliary verb and ordinary verb.

e.g.

I dare say you’re right.

I dare tell him the matter. (Auxiliary verb)

He dares to talk with him rudely. (Ordinary verb)

3. Need: is used for auxiliary and ordinary verb. And show a necessity.

e.g.

I need a book. (Ordinary)

This page needs checking again. (Auxiliary)

5. Adverb: An adverb is a word that adds more to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Many adverbs end with (LY).you make these adverbs by adding (LY) to adjectives.

Adjective       Adverb

Kind               kindly

Sad                Sadly

Beautiful      Beautifully

Some words that end in (LY) are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in (LY) too.

Like (lovely, lonely, lively)

Adverbs are mainly divided into 3 parts.

•        Simple adverb

•        Interrogative adverb

•        Relative adverb

1. Simple adverb: are used for daily activities.

Simple adverbs are divided into eight parts:

1. Adverb of manner: It describes in which manner an action is done.

e.g.

Hikmat painted the kitchen very badly.

She speaks very quietly.

The team played wonderfully.

2. Adverb of time: It describes when an action is done.

e.g.

He comes here daily.

I am going to my new school tomorrow.

Samander formerly lived here.

3. Adverb of place: It describes where an action is done.

e.g.

The dog is in the garden.

Yahya wazir came here yesterday.

His children go everywhere with him.

4. Adverb of reason or purpose: It describes the purpose or reason for the action.

They are (therefore, so…….etc.)

e.g.

He worked hard, and therefore he was to save money.

5. Adverb of affirmation and negation: These adverbs show agreement or disagreement with speaker.

Or

Which says yes if it is yes and no if it is no.

e.g.

Can you speak English? Yes, I can.

Do you know her? No, I do not.

6. Emphatic or intensive adverb: these adverbs show emphasize on an action.

e.g.

You came just in time.

She even eat apple now.

7. Adverb of number: are used to show how often an action happened.

e.g.

If I could see her once again I would be happy.

I’ve been to Waziristan twice.

Adverb of number divided into 2 parts:

•        Definite numeral adverb

•        Indefinite numeral adverbs

1. Definite numeral adverb: these adverbs show definite number.

They are (once, twice, firstly, secondly, thirdly……etc.)

e.g.

I have two reasons for not buying the house. Firstly it’s too big, and secondly it’s too far from city.

2. Indefinite numeral adverbs: are those adverbs which show indefinite number.

They are (sometimes, often .usually, always, several times….etc.)

She sometimes goes to America

We are usually at home in the evenings.

8. Adverb of quantity or degree: It shows how much or in what degree or to what extent.

They are (too, very, little, quite, rather, much …etc.)

e.g.

He was too careless.

I am fully prepared.

I am rather busy.

2. Interrogative adverb: (Question) When? Where? How? Why? How much/often?

e.g.

Why do you have to do such a stupid thing?

When did you arrive?

3. Relative adverb: These words are the same in form as Interrogative Adverbs; but they are not questions and they join two sentence.

They are (when, where, how, why)

e.g.

He is the only one who knows how to do it.

The school where I study English is not far from your house.

Comparison of adverbs:

1. one-syllable adverb take (er) in the comparative and add (est) in the superlative forms.

e.g.

Fast   faster   fastest

Early earlier earliest

Loud louder loudest

2. Two and more than two-syllable adverb add (more) in the comparative and (most) in the superlative forms.

Slowly               more slowly              most slowly

Dangerously    more dangerously   most dangerously

3. Irregular comparisons of adverb:

Well    better    best

Little   less       least

• Adverbs of Frequency: Some adverbs and adverb phrases answer the question “How often an action is done” They are called adverbs of frequency.

They are (never, always, ever, frequently…..etc.)

e.g.

We always go to school by bus.

I’ll never make that mistake again.

Does he ever come to play chess?

6. Preposition: Prepositions are abstract words that have no concrete meaning and use to show the relationship between two person or thing.

The prepositions are divided into two parts:

•        Simple preposition

•        Compound preposition

Simple preposition: are used in the ordinary or standard from and show the relationship between two person or things.

The simple preposition are (up, under , with ,below , above ,at, for ,in, on, under between…..etc.)

e.g.

The book is on the disk.

We had a picnic in the park.

Compound preposition: the compound preposition usually contains two-syllable or more than two-syllable and show the relationship between two persons or things.

The compound preposition are (according to, by means of, in front of, due to, because of, for the sake of…..etc.)

e.g.

There is a lorry in the front of the shop.

7. Conjunction: Conjunctions are words that join words, phrases, and clauses together.

Or

Conjunction- word used to connect other words or groups of words

 There are three types of conjunctions:

•        Coordinating Conjunctions

•        Correlative Conjunctions

•        Subordinating Conjunctions.

1. Coordinating conjunction: Connect similar words or groups of words.

Coordinating conjunctions are (And, but, for, nor, or, so, yet)

To remember all seven, you might want to learn one of these acronyms: FANBOYS, or FONYBAS. (F = for, A = and , N = nor , B = but , O = or, Y = yet, S = so)

e.g.

Smoking has been linked to health problems, but many people continue to smoke.

Diabetes is a serious disease, and it is becoming more common.

There are five kinds of coordinating conjunction:

       1. Cumulative conjunction: Is used to add one though to another.

They are (also, as well as, And, not only…..but ….also, too ….etc.)

He is studying Russian but he is also studying French.

•        Alternative conjunction: A conjunction that expresses an alternative relationship between the words, phrases or clause it connect.

They are(otherwise , either…or, Or else ,or……etc.)

e.g.

Either go to see him or send an apology.

•        Adversative conjunction: the conjunction relation of units that expresses the opposition of their meanings.

Adversative conjunction are (but, but on the contrary, but yet, while, however…etc.)

e.g.

I saw him while I was out walking.

•        Explanatory conjunction: explanatory conjunctions usually add details to the words or sentences.

Explanatory conjunction are (for, such as, as, for example, that is to say, that is, instance)

e.g.

The father punished her for she was fail.

•        Illative conjunction: are placed between two sentences and show the conculusion of the first one on the second one.

They are (so, therefore….etc.)

e.g.

He worked hard, and therefore he was able to save money,

2. Correlative Conjunctions: Similar to coordinating conjunction but differ only in that always used in pairs.

They are (both…and; neither…nor; whether…or; so . . . as)

e.g.

They are neither our friend nor our ally.

You can have either this one or that one.

3. Subordinating Conjunctions: are used to join the subordinating sentences with main sentences.

Or

Connect two complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinate to, or less important than, the other.

Subordinating conjunctions are (whom, whether, whose ,as if ,as soon as ,although , unless…etc.)

e.g.

Don’t come unless I telephone.

I don’t know whether it’s possible.

8. Interjection: An interjection is simply a word that expresses emotion.  It is a reaction that reveals surprise, pain, anger, delight, or a range of similar feelings.

Interjections are divided into two parts:

•        Natural interjection

•        Compound interjection

1. Natural interjection: natural interjections usually contain one-syllable and are used to show strong emotion.

The natural interjections are:

Ah! , Oh! , Alas! , Um! , Hah!....….etc.

e.g.

Oh! , Obaid , I don’t know.

2. Compound interjection: These interjections usually contain two-syllable or more than two and show strong feeling.

The natural interjections are:

You’re kidding! , welcome! , well-done, shame on you! , no way!

●Interjection with noun

   Stupid man!

● Interjection with verb

   How careless!

● Interjection adverb

   Listen! Listen!

9. Article: is used with noun or adjective to define them.

Articles are divided into two parts:

•        Definite article

•        Indefinite article

1. Definite article: Definite article is only one in English language. Which is (The)

Usage of Definite article (The)

Before the superlative from of Adjectives

The tallest boy

The cleverest student

Before the common nouns

The country

The school

Before ordinal numbers

The first

The second

Definite article cannot be used before the days of the week, months of the year.

The Monday (×)

The February (×)

Definite article cannot be used before the proper nouns.

The Waziristan (×)

When the definite article is placed before words beginning with vowel, it is pronounced as (dey) the

The apple

When the definite article is placed before words beginning with consonant, it is pronounced as (da) the

The pen

2. Indefinite article: there are two indefinite article in English language which are (a) and (an).

The (A) is placed before the words beginning with a consonant.

e.g.

A pen

A book

The (An) is placed before the words beginning with a vowel.

e.g.

An orange

An egg